Black Nationalism and its Role in the Civil Rights Movement: 1954-1972
Giovanni Sullivan-Massa, Fairleigh Dickinson University
Abstract: This article challenges the assumption that Black nationalism was a singular and ultimately failed movement that sprouted and died during the civil rights era of the 50s-70s. This article describes the long history of black nationalism, and its leaders, from the formation of the United States to the civil rights era, specifically describing the two main branches of black nationalism: community nationalism and separatist nationalism. Community nationalism describes the need for autonomy and the self-strengthening of African American communities, while separatist nationalism champions the creation of an entirely independent, African American-led and controlled country. This article also describes the real impact black nationalism had on the civil rights movement and the various ways movements like the Black Panthers put forward their agenda.
Introduction
Black nationalism in the United States is often thought of as a monolithic, violent, and ultimately failed attempt to gain equality for the Black population in the United States through militarism. The reality is far more nuanced. Black nationalism came in many different varieties. It was not centralized to one group, and Black nationalism as a whole played a critical role in the civil rights movement by providing another voice of protest. It attempted to combat the structural racism that was present in the United States by confronting it directly and unapologetically.
This essay seeks to describe what Black nationalism is and the origins of Black nationalism by specifically highlighting classical Black nationalism of the 1800s-1930s. This essay will then explain contemporary Black nationalism, how it formed, and the supporters, similarities, and differences of the two distinct groups of contemporary Black nationalism – community nationalism and separatist nationalism. In addition, this essay will also analyze two major representatives of contemporary Black nationalism and the movements they were involved in, by investigating Stokley Carmicheal and Malcolm X. Finally, this essay will investigate the political impact of Black nationalist movements and their various kinds of activism by discussing their various successes, failures, and the vicious reaction that was made against them.
Defining Black Nationalism and Classical Black Nationalism
Black nationalism is the recognition of shared cultural history and racial heritage, and the championing of racial solidarity (Harris). Socially, Black nationalism advances the notion that persecuted people must unite with each other, and that this unity first begins locally before expanding abroad (Ibid, p. 162). Economically, Black nationalism encourages African Americans to buy and do business with other African Americans by supporting black owned enterprises (Brown and Shaw). Politically speaking, the goal of Black nationalism is more nebulous, with there being a variety of different views ranging from gaining better control of their local communities' economies and politics, to returning back to Africa, to the creation of an independent Black state in North America. Despite these many political differences, the collective goal of various Black Nationalist movements is alike: to free Black people from the oppression that they faced (Harris).
The first significant expressions of this goal is known as classical Black nationalism, which originated in the 1700s but grew to its greatest strength from the 1850s-1920s. This era of Black nationalism is characterized by the desire to either return to Africa or to create a sovereign Black state. Initial support of these ideals came following the American Revolution where some free Africans Americans would indicate their yearning to return to Africa (Moses). By the 1830s, returning to Africa fell out of favor until the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. The act made it so that every Black person in the United States was a slave unless proven otherwise, giving more power to owners to sue for their “property” (Ibid, p. 19). This led to an increase in interest in emigration with there being goals to create a Black republic to help “uplift” the Black race (Ibid, p. 20). This movement was supported by figures such as Martin Deleny, a physician who described the Black population of America as powerless and thought a solution to that would be to go to places like South and Central America or the West Indies (Ibid, p. 119). The last major figure of this era would be Marcus Garvey; who, while failing to bring many African Americans back to Africa, saw success in being a spokesman for Pan-Africanism, calling for unity of all Africans into a single state, before being arrested in 1925,deported from the United States, and dying in obscurity in 1940 (Ibid, pp. 33-35).
Contemporary Black Nationalisms Origins, Internal Differences and Supporters
After the Second World War and with the coming of the 50s and 60s, classical Black nationalism gave way to its contemporary contenders. Modern Black nationalism evolved from two separate but similar ideals that had come to force in the early 1900s (Joseph). The first would be the new Black nationalism of the 1920s championed by individuals like Marcus Garvey. The second would be the incredible surge of democratic, labor, and grassroots civil rights movements that followed the Great Depression and World War Two. Helping to construct a new and more expansive vision of civil rights, citizenship, and democracy for African Americans in the United States, specifically accentuating the connection between civil rights in America and in the third world, racial self-respect and pride, as well as political self-determination. By the late 50s, Black militants in the North, disgusted by the racial violence that permeated the south and inspired by the action of civil rights protesters, began to form their own Black nationalist movements (Ibid, p. 752).
Much like the classical Black nationalist movements of the past, modern Black nationalism has different groups that pursued different political ideals. It was not one movement, but many, supported by different facets of African American society. Modern Black nationalism can be separated into two general groups: separatist nationalism and community nationalism (Brown and Shaw).
The intention of separatist nationalism is to make a permeant reality of the physical separation between Blacks and Whites that exists in America, via the creation of a Black state (Ibid, pp. 26-27). Similar to other Black nationalists, separatist nationalists approve of there being greater autonomy to the African American community. Ultimately, separatist nationalists view that Black independence is necessary, and that it must be judicial and territorial. Importantly, while community nationalism seeks for there to be greater Black self-determination within existing social structures and political arrangements, separatists want to completely do away with these structures by building their own. Separatists see themselves and other African Americans as a distinct, systematically oppressed racial group, who comprise their own sociopolitical entity as, “a nation within a nation” (Ibid, p. 27). Rejecting inclusion within the White-dominated United States, urging for the creation of a new, independent, homeland. Major organizations that supported and called for separatism were Elijah Muhammad’s Nation of Islam, the Black Liberation Army, and the Republic of New Africa. These groups had all demanded for the creation of an independent Black state in the,” Black belt”- southern states with significant African American populations, which include Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina (Ibid).
Meanwhile, community nationalism asserts that African Americans should support and control institutions and communities where African Americans are dominant in (Ibid, p. 25). Community nationalists want autonomy, particularly stressing that independence requires communitarianism, organization based on self-governing communities, and a defined acceptance of racial pluralism. These nationalists view that they have a unique history defined by racial oppression, and are not like an ethnic group akin to exploited immigrants. Expressions of community nationalism exist as far back as the 1830s, in the form of civic aid societies, churches, and mutual aid organizations, all aimed to cultivate and consolidate Black self-reliance and independence. During the 1960s, “community control” and ”Black power” rose as new versions of these old ideals: wanting to build their own separate identity before involving themselves with America as a whole. With leaders such as Stokley Carmicheal stating the need for a group to, “close ranks” before they can enter an open society like America (Ibid, p. 26). Organizations like the Black Panthers were staunch supporters of community nationalism, wanting their communities to be more self-reliant and free from interference.
Among African Americans, those who are more liberal, are younger, have a higher family income, or are currently members of Black organizations, are more supportive of community nationalism. Separatist nationalism is more popular among those who are also younger, male, or have a lower income. The potential reason being for this is that more well-off African Americans support the group advancement that American pluralism cherishes and that community nationalism approves of. Meanwhile, less affluent African Americans who have not seen a significant improvement of their position post-civil rights would support separatist nationalism, as it seeks to totally reform or replace the present system that exists in America (Ibid, p. 39).
Black Nationalist Figures and Their Movements
Of the many Black nationalist movements, there are dozens upon dozens of important spokesmen, organizers, and leaders. Two representatives who will be analyzed, are Stokely Carmichael and Malcom X.
Stokely Carmichael was born in Trinidad and immigrated to the United States in 1952 where he would involve himself in civil rights organizing (Joseph). He proved to be a charismatic, agile, and tenacious organizer, joining the Nonviolent Action Group, an affiliated group to the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. He quickly became one of the SNCC’s most important organizers and served as a director of Freedom Summer. Freedom Summer was a program that would help organize and teach African Americans that lived in the south, many of which were still living in practically feudalistic conditions (Ibid, p. 128). In 1965, Carmichael would conduct activism for the Lowdens County Freedom Organization, which was aimed to help register local Black residents to vote and would serve as the inspiration for the Black Panther Party.
In 1966 Carmichael would become chairman of the SNCC, where he would become the nation's leading anti-war activist, inspiring other activists like Martin Luther King Jr. and championing a Black power message. Even when he transitioned away from SNCC leadership, he remained an important speaker. While Carmichael’s relationship with the Black Panther Party would eventually collapse, he nonetheless played an important role in giving encouragement and advice and raising funds for the BPP, helping to propel the organization to national prominence (Ibid, p. 131). In 1969, Carmichael would move to Africa and rename himself Kwame Ture, advocating for revolutionary Pan-Africanism. In America, his call for Black power continues to reverberate within mainstream and Black culture (Ibid, p.132). He would die in 1998 from cancer.
Malcolm X, born as Malcolm Little, spent his childhood living with relatives or in foster homes due to the hospitalization of his mother and death of his father. He committed crimes as a young adult and would be sentenced to prison in 1946. It was while in prison that he would convert to the Nation of Islam, a religious Black nationalist organization that formed in 1930 (Felber and Manning). He then began correspondence with other members of the Nation of Islam and its leader, Elijah Muhammad. Rapidly initiating a proselytization campaign to convert other prisoners to the Nation of Islam - getting the attention of the local press. After being paroled from prison in 1952, Malcolm X would become one of Elijah Muhammad’s most devout followers (Felber and Manning). Quickly rising to prominence not only in the Nation of Islam, but also the national scene - effectively becoming the Nation of Islams public face.
As its spokesmen, Malcolm X endorsed Black nationalism, being a provocative advocate of racial justice as well as racial separation. He exposed the hypocrisy of the American democratic system, focusing his criticism on the fact that it was white people that did not treat Black people as human beings (Cone). He also aimed much of his criticisms towards the covert racism of Northern White liberals by stating their connection towards the creation of Black ghettos (Ibid, p. 180). Malcolm X also intensely critiqued the nonviolence philosophy of other civil rights advocates like Martin Luther King Jr., seeing passivity as a, "ridiculous philosophy” that Whites would not embrace on their own. Malcolm X did not campaign for violence but for self-defense He saw the right to self-defense as an important element of humanity, an element White people employed for themselves without question. He despised their contradiction when they advised Black people to not get freedom the same way they did (Ibid, pp. 180-181).
In 1964, Malcolm X would leave the Nation of Islam and reject Elijah Muhammad's racist ideology, but he remained steadfast in his criticisms of White supremacy and support of self-defense. Malcolm X was assassinated at the Audubon Ballroom in February of 1965. Some view that he was murdered because of the violence he provoked, but he died fighting for the freedom of African Americans and exposing White violence (Ibid, p. 181). Ultimately, Malcolm X was one of the most important figures of Black nationalist movements, helping to spread the demand for Black power and freedom not only in the United States, but also the Carribean, South America, and Africa (Franklin).
Both figures played critical roles in the Black nationalist movements that they represented and spearheaded their movement’s activism and the impact they had on America.
Black Nationalism Activism, Impact and Vilification
In order to pursue their goals of racial justice, Black nationalist movements employed a wide variety of tactics and programs to not only spread their message but also to challenge the systemic oppression African Americans faced and to help build their local communities.
Organizations such as the Black Panther Party were locally based, conducting locally derived programs to assist people on a local level (Tyner). When there is discussion of the Black Panther Party and the policies that they conducted, there is focus on their controversial armed protests and their police-alert patrol. The police-alert patrol was a program that saw armed BPP members essentially monitor police with the goal of fostering a sense of unity within Black communities and to combat police brutality (Ibid, p. 111). Programs like the police-alert patrol were integral to the BPP, but often overshadow other programs that were made to assist in community growth and foster community identity. The BPP had programs to teach Black history, establish health clinics, investigate incidents of police brutality, and to promote tenant and welfare rights (Ibid, p.110). The BPP also initiated the S.A.F.E. Program (Seniors Against Fearful Environment), providing free transportation and escort services for the elderly, and support wasn’t only limited to the elderly but children as well. There were free breakfast programs and clothing drives all to help the welfare of children (Ibid).
Organizations like the BPP did achieve some success and were relevant. They were not simply a punitive collection of rabble-rousers. For example, the BPP successfully lobbied the Oakland Housing Authority to clean up and make repairs to low-income residences of the elderly (Ibid). When there was a standoff between prisoners and officials at Attica prison in 1971, Bobby Seale who co-founded the BPP was called to mediate and treated seriously (Williams). Most importantly, Black nationalism and the movements that supported it would leave a legacy that confronted America’s ugly racial past. Stimulating a debate about Americas democracy and racial progress, that ultimately would help change America, a legacy that would be purposefully tarnished by government organizations and media (Ibid).
Few people are aware that Black nationalist organizations like the BPP fought for human rights. Many scholarly and popular narratives still portray the Black power movement and Black nationalism as overwhelmingly negative as if it were the, “civil rights movement’s evil twin” (Roman). Government organizations like the FBI and its Counterintelligence Program (CONTELPRO) viewed Black nationalist organizations as a threat, with FBI director Hoover directly stating that the BPP was ”the greatest threat to internal security of this country”. Because of this, he conducted actions to discredit, disunite, and destroy the organization (Harris). It was not only BPP leaders who were affected, Malcolm X was surveyed by the FBI from 1953 until his death, with the agency amassing thousands of documents about him and his every movement. This was also the case for other Black nationalist leaders such as Stokely Carmichael and Elijah Muhammad.
Conclusion
Black nationalism is thought by many as a violent, singular, and recent phenomenon that only served to inflame tensions and insight violence. History proves that as false; Black nationalism has a long and complex narrative spanning as far back as the founding of America. It came in many different forms throughout history, but all were united in improving the status and rights of African Americans. Serving an essential role in the civil rights movements by directly confronting the systematic oppression and hypocrisy of America. Whose long history was ignored, image tarnished by unjust negative media and CONTELPRO, in order to weaken Black nationalist movements which were seen as a threat.
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