Formation and Implications of Racial Stereotypes in Film:
Examining the Past, Present, and Future
Charlie McClain, Cedar Crest College
Abstract: Stereotypes are beliefs about people based on their membership in a particular group, such as a racial group. Individuals typically form these beliefs through personal experiences with particular social groups, but they can also be developed through observation including films and other media. Stereotypes have been present in film since it first made its debut, and these beliefs play a key role in twentieth century films such as The Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and Song of the South (1946), as well as films from the twenty-first century such as Precious (2009), The Princess and the Frog (2009) and Get Out (2017). Since these presentations can contribute to the formation and application of negative stereotypes about Black people in society, it is imperative to consider safeguards that will minimize their impact in the future.
Keywords: stereotypes, race, film, media
What are Stereotypes?
Stereotypes are overgeneralized beliefs about a group of people. All people have biases and stereotypes (Ross, 2014); thus, researchers have devoted a large amount of time to understanding how stereotypes are formed and maintained. Stereotypes belong to a type of cognition called a schema, which contains all the information people possess about a particular theme. For example, a person may have certain beliefs and knowledge about restaurants (e.g., what kinds of food they serve, how they typically order, how they should tip) or certain beliefs and knowledge about a church service (e.g., how the clergy member behaves, how attendees should behave). Stereotypes are similar to these categorizations, but they involve information about a particular group of people and subsequently impact a person’s interpretation of members of a social group. These overgeneralized beliefs influence how people perceive the world and how they interact with others, especially if those individuals are interacting with a target group of a stereotype or if the person is a part of the stereotyped group. They can also mislead people through the development of false conceptions, since they are often based on biased information, grounded in emotion, difficult to change, and adopted into one’s psychological and personality makeup (Gonzalez, 1994). Regardless of the group a stereotype is targeting, all stereotypes tend to contain these characteristics.
Stereotypes can lead to prejudice and discrimination. Gonzalez (1994) defines prejudice as an unfavorable attitude directed toward any person or group based on a set of characteristics and proposes that prejudice cannot exist without stereotypes. It is therefore crucial to better understand the formation of stereotypes to combat prejudice and discriminatory behaviors. Media can contribute to an increase of stereotypical presentations, but it can also be used to help combat these negative portrayals and the behaviors associated with them, especially using social media. These stereotypes can be categorized based on various factors like their impact or the social group they target.
Categories of Stereotypes Based on Impact
Stereotypes can be categorized based on the impact of the stereotype. One classification is the distinction between positive and negative stereotypes. It is a common misconception that the characteristics attributed to a social group using stereotypes are always negative. A positive stereotype is a generalized belief attributing a positive characteristic to a particular social group. Most believe this is a compliment; however, a positive stereotype can lead to detrimental outcomes (Siy & Cheryan, 2016). For example, a positive stereotype might state that Asian people are good at math. A negative stereotype might state that Asian people are dirty. Negative stereotypes are generally discouraged and lead to the people using these stereotypes being viewed as prejudiced; however, positive stereotypes are often perceived as appropriate, acceptable, and complimentary. Consequently, negative stereotypes have decreased over time, but there has not been a change in the trend for positive stereotypes (Siy & Cheryan, 2016).
Since positive stereotypes are considered socially acceptable, even as society attempts to grow more inclusive and decrease stereotyping, many individuals do not feel the need to discourage positive stereotypes to the same extent as negative stereotypes. However, researchers have discovered that positive stereotypes can still have negative implications on society and the social groups they are attributed to as they can lead to unrealistic expectations for someone in that stereotyped group or can lead to bias and discrimination for members of the stereotyped group (Ross, 2014). For example, Black people are frequently stereotyped as successful athletes, which can be considered a positive stereotype since it is associating a positive trait with the race. However, this leads many Black children to believe they are only good at sports or may only be able to enter college through athletics. This also impacts individuals of other races, as they may not believe they can perform in athletic settings at the same level as a Black athlete. This is one example of a positive stereotype that can be harmful to people who are the target of the stereotype as well as people that interact with the target of the stereotype. When interacting with others, positive and negative stereotypes can contribute to entering the interaction with preconceived ideas. Both can be seen in media.
Categorizing Humans and Stereotypes Based on Race
Along with the classification of stereotypes into positive and negative, stereotypes can be classified by the type of social group they are referring to. “To manage and negotiate an extremely complex and busy world, we have developed the capacity to compartmentalize things and people we are exposed to on a regular basis. We put them in observable categories” (Ross, 2014, p. 6). One common category that Ross mentions is race, which is difficult to define. Race is a sociological classification with very few biological distinctions (Whitley & Kite, 2010). In fact, since there are so few distinctive characteristics between people of different races, racial classifications have changed over time due to confusion about which characteristics belonged to which race. This is particularly true for racial classifications based on skin tone and geographic locations. What one may consider Black is dependent upon their geographic location and considers additional information such as ancestry and sometimes historical events they have lived through.
It is difficult to classify individuals into different races because many of the physical characteristics meant to define a racial group overlap with physical characteristics from another racial group (Gonzalez, 1994). For example, curly hair is frequently attributed to Black ancestry, but there are also white individuals with natural curly hair. Given that race is a social construct, there are no underlying genetic differences that support these classifications. According to Gonzalez (1994, p. 9), “Observed physical differences are only important because society has made them important.” Racial classification would not be important without a developed and globalized society. Since race is a social classification, it is only natural that stereotypes which are formed by society would expand to include racial stereotypes.
While every racial group can be the target of a stereotype, minorities are the most frequently stereotyped groups and are typically the most heavily impacted by stereotypes. Minority groups are any social group that has suffered historical disadvantages due to an ingrained pattern of prejudice and discrimination by a system in power (Gonzalez, 1994). When a member of a minority group encounters a member of the majority group, the majority group member tends to use any interaction with that individual to characterize the group as a whole and make assumptions about future interactions with members of that group. This pattern of stereotyping can lead to prejudice and discrimination that continues the oppression of minority groups. While the majority group can be stereotyped, racial minorities are stereotyped more frequently.
Categorizing Humans Based on Multiple Traits
In addition to race, stereotypes are linked to other identifiers such as gender, religion, age, and more. Stereotypes assigned to individuals from a combination of more than one identity such as race and gender are known as a combined category or subtype (Whitley & Kite, 2010). Intersectionality means that every identity a person holds will interact to make up their everyday experiences, including stereotypes others may hold about them. A well-known instance of intersectionality producing a combined category stereotype is the “angry Black woman” stereotype, which attributes a defined characteristic, anger, to the female subpopulation of one race. Combined category stereotypes are assigned to individuals classified into one particular social group in conjunction with another social group they are assigned to. For example, there may be stereotypes targeting Hispanic women, targeting overweight white men, or targeting Black men. When one person has more than one identity the various identities can interact to make up one’s everyday experience, including stereotypes they encounter due to intersectionality.
Continuing Research on Stereotypes
Research on stereotypes tends to spur additional questions, as well as hypotheses for explaining their formation. An increase in the dependency on technology has led to research into stereotypes that are commonly shown in the media. A common media platform that fosters and develops stereotypes are films since these are platforms that people begin to use at young ages. With a growing interest in increasing diversity, equity, and inclusion awareness, the media has tried to combat racial stereotypes in film in recent years. Current research should examine methods that could be employed to decrease the prevalence of racial stereotypes in already existing media platforms, and their impact.
Examples of Racial Stereotypes in Film
The film industry may not have created stereotypes, but the industry has helped to form and maintain stereotypes in the minds of its viewers. Various films have profited from stereotypes and reinforce the acceptability of controversial ideas. Racial stereotypes in American film were first used to justify the treatment of Black people during slavery, Reconstruction, and the Civil Rights Movement, leading to an increase in stereotypes about Black people such as the “Uncle Tom” or “Mammy” stereotypes (Gordon, 2016). These stereotypes were more overt in films from the twentieth century, but do still exist in modern film, although hidden. Some of the films that portray these stereotypes are more successful (e.g., have a larger viewership) than others, and this highlights how well certain stereotypes are accepted by society at any given time. They can also impact age groups differently, reinforcing stereotypes in adults and forming the associations that create stereotypes in children.
Stereotypes in film tend to resonate with individuals of all ages, but especially with children. When interviewed, children associated white people with being well-educated and intelligent and associated racial minorities with being lazy, rule breakers, and unserious based on media presentations (Gordon, 2016). Based on the roles children saw individuals in media fulfill, they were able to report that Black people were typically criminals, maids, or janitors and the white characters they saw were doctors, police officers, and bosses (Gordon, 2016). Social role theory explains that the children learn to associate individual members of a social group with the characteristics of the roles they see them portrayed, even if this is within films (Kite & Whitley, 2016). If children can identify these trends in film, they will unconsciously begin to apply these stereotypes in life since they are unconsciously, and sometimes consciously, learning them. It is imperative to examine how film includes these stereotypes and how this has changed over time. Throughout the twentieth century, stereotypes were socially acceptable and not widely challenged. The use of stereotypes was normal and blatant. In addition to this, many films did not have a rating, so they were likely to be shown to young impressionable minds.
The Birth of a Nation became a national event upon its release in 1915 that clearly portrayed Black people as dangerous criminals who were only useful when used for service. Upon the conclusion of the Civil War, Black men took over the government and committed heinous crimes against white Americans. These crimes only came to an end with the interference of the hate group known as the Ku Klux Klan. The film used its large platform to further develop the stereotype that Black people are dangerous and that self-defense is needed when in contact with Black people. This self-defense was frequently by hate groups. By including these stereotypes and historically inaccurate events in the film, the film led to the belief that Black people only meant harm and justified hate crimes against Black people based on this belief.
Gone with the Wind is a popular film that was originally released in 1939 that portrayed Black characters in roles of service. The popular film follows the love life of Scarlett O’Hara who is constantly helped in her daily life by Black servants. One service role is portrayed by Mammy and created the stereotype that Black women are reliable for service but do not have other roles in life. This stereotype became known as the “Mammy” stereotype and was named after the character. In this film, Mammy is shown to be stubborn and outspoken, which are characteristics that lend themselves to beliefs about Black women as well. The beliefs in this film could influence the treatment of Black women in society regardless of background since the film was viewed by white Americans with limited experience with Black women.
Song of the South was criticized from the time of its release in 1946 for the portrayal of Black people as happy with the conditions of slavery and servitude. The film follows the story of a young boy befriending Uncle Remus who shares fictional stories to the boy and his friends. Uncle Remus exemplifies the “Uncle Tom” stereotype portraying Black men as submissive. He is also shown as lazy and slow, thus dehumanizing the Black population. Although the film was criticized from the time of its release, traces of the film are still present in society through use of the songs and alluding to the Br’er Rabbit stories. This continues a cycle of increasing exposure to a film filled with stereotypes.
During the twentieth century, racial stereotypes were obvious throughout the films and often believed to be true by the creators and a lot of the viewers. Creators were not frequently criticized at the time of the release and the inclusion of stereotypes was the norm of the time These films were met with much criticism from the American population as time passed since their release.
In the twenty-first century, stereotypes, or at least negative stereotypes, became socially unacceptable. The stereotypes in films became more covert and the intentional use of these stereotypes decreased. However, implicit bias still exists, and stereotypes continue to be seen in film. Although the inclusion of stereotypes may not be the intention, it continues to have a detrimental impact.
Precious was released in 2009 and follows the story of an overweight Black teenager named Precious searching for ways out of her family’s cycle of abuse. The film maintains the idea that every Black family is one of dysfunction although abusive and dysfunction can occur in a family of any race. In addition to this, the film contributed to upholding the stereotype that Black families are always reliant on Welfare. While Precious was created by a Black creator, the plot was reliant on harmful stereotypes about the Black community that potentially might have been unconsciously internalized by the writer and director.
The Princess and the Frog follows the story of a hardworking waitress named Tiana transforming into a frog after being kissed by one. Upon marrying the frog, she discovers that he is a prince. The film includes inaccurate representations of vodou as well as implicitly maintains the belief that Black people are inferior and laborers. While this film was released in 2009 to allow Disney to showcase a Black princess, it was not good representation given the significant time that the princess spent portrayed as a frog and a laborer. There was finally a Black princess, but the story was filled with harmful beliefs about her Black identity which highlighted the idea that not all representation is good representation.
Get Out follows the story of Chris meeting his girlfriend’s family who turns out to be in a scheme to place white minds inside of Black bodies. The film mocks the stereotype that Black bodies are better than white bodies while Black minds are inferior to white minds. Many deny the continuation of stereotypic beliefs and racism within American society, so the film intended to show the flaws with the belief. However, some did not understand the film as satire and the film may aid in reinforcing the harmful overgeneralizations. Boger (2018) poses a crucial question about the film “at what point are you supposed to take what you’re watching seriously?” It becomes hard for the audience to differentiate what is satire and what is serious if they are not familiar with the lived experiences of the director and many Black men in America. This can lead to the audience not recognizing the overgeneralizations. While it may seem like stereotypes are no longer present in films of the twenty first century, they are still present, just hidden more than they were in history and sometimes used to point out flaws in society.
As viewers watch films that contain these stereotypes, it creates indirect contact with a racial subgroup that may impact information processing and lead to the formation of associations. Psychologists have described behavior learning patterns that arise from this type of observational learning. When members of non-Black communities believe all members of the Black community fit the stereotypes shown in film, this can be attributed to the outgroup homogeneity effect (Kite & Whitley, 2016) and explains why all non-Black individuals may believe that all Black people are similar. In addition to this, social learning theory (Bandura, 1971) explains that simply observing how someone behaves in society affects the perception of how all people perceived to be similar behave. Lastly, the ultimate attribution error (Kite & Whitley, 2016) leads to non-Black individuals attaching negative outcomes presented in films with the race of the characters. If a Black individual in a film makes a bad choice, such as voodoo being used for evil in The Princess and the Frog, it can lead to members of other groups believing that Black people will participate in proponents of evil. These various stereotypes in the world and within film have various implications for those who are stereotyped and those who stereotype others.
Reducing Racial Stereotypes in Film and Everyday Life
Implicit Bias Training and Education
Implicit bias training involves making the unconscious bias conscious. In many cases, danger from implicit bias and stereotypes are increased when there is not an acknowledgement of the biases. Hillary Clinton once said, “We all have implicit biases… What we need to do is be more honest about that, and surface them. Because today, most people believe that they don’t have those biases” (Holroyd, 2017). When there is no acknowledgement of biases, it is impossible to address them and correct inappropriate actions that may happen based on internalized stereotypes. While it has been debated if implicit bias training is helpful, it is a start to improvement and reduction of stereotypes. Implicit bias training will make individuals aware of unintentional discriminatory actions (Pritlove, 2019). Once individuals are aware of the stereotypes one may hold, they can work on countering these stereotypes. As society has progressed, explicit biases are deemed unacceptable. It is illegal and immoral to discriminate against people due to group membership (Rudman et. al, 2001); however, this can only be criminalized if the discriminatory actions are intentional. Implicit biases still exist in every person and may result in various unintentional discriminatory actions. By not gaining insight into these unintentional thoughts and actions, and providing a pass for actions that are unintentional, it increases the implications of stereotypes and harmful impacts regardless of intentions. A lack of awareness is not an excuse for causing harm.
Individuals must be made aware of biases beginning with education. Education replaces stereotypes with facts (Betton et. al, 2015). Students should be exposed to coursework that delves into stereotypes as well as receive media literacy education to differentiate credible sources from noncredible sources since society relies on media at increasing amounts. It has been shown that students exposed to coursework and class discussions in relation to diversity had a reduction in prejudice and stereotypes as evaluated by implicit association tests (Rudman et. al, 2001). If children are aware of internalized bias and stereotypes from an early age, they are less likely to carry these thoughts and discriminatory actions into the future. Furthermore, as engagement with media increases, media literacy should be taught. Media literacy allows children to access, analyze, and evaluate forms of media (Scharrer, 2015) and thus become more cognizant of the messages in films and other various forms of media. If they understand that films depict one point of view that is often fictional, then children are less likely to attribute negative actions shown in films to membership of a social group. Education and awareness of stereotypes, diversity training, and implicit bias training of individuals are the first steps to reducing stereotypes in and out of film.
As well as individuals recognizing their biases, organizations need to also recognize biases. While individuals can have a harmful impact on each other, a lot of harmful bias is institutional. There are various steps organizations can take to recognize implicit bias, besides the requirement of diversity training. One method is establishing groups for underrepresented members of a community (Onyeador et. al, 2021). These groups will allow underrepresented members a sense of community and an opportunity to educate others on the differences that may exist within a social group if the group desires. An additional method for educating members of an organization is the establishment of groups for interracial communications (Onyeador et. al, 2021). If a group is organized that facilitates interracial communication, exposure to the group can help reduce unconscious bias, stereotypes, and prejudice. While these steps will not completely eradicate institutional bias, it is a step in the right direction in conjunction with individual education.
Education and implicit bias training facilitates an ability for individuals to become aware of biases they may not realize they have otherwise. Through education, individuals and organizations can gain awareness and further initiatives to eliminate stereotypes and discriminatory practices associated with stereotypes.
Increased Interracial Interactions and Representation
An effective method for reducing stereotypes is increasing interracial interactions. Personal interactions undermine stereotypes (Betton et. al, 2015) by increasing experiences with the outgroup and eliminating false correlations. Intergroup contact hypothesis proposes that contact between members from distinct groups reduces prejudices and intergroup conflicts (Neubaum et. al, 2020). Increased exposure to members of the outgroup will result in less generalizations about people based on membership with the group. While the person may be aware of stereotypes associated with the group, more interactions with members of the group allow the individual engaging in these stereotypes to see the inaccuracies with the assessments typically made. These increased interracial interactions can later lead to focusing away from group differences (Rosenthal & Crisp, 2006). This focus away from group differences may also reduce stereotype threat in those frequently targeted by stereotypes (Rosenthal & Crisp, 2006). By focusing on other aspects of the individual besides the stereotype they are typically associated with, the individuals frequently targeted by stereotypes are no longer overly concerned with confirming a stereotype. These individuals can focus on their individual traits and roles instead of the stereotypes associated with their group.
While interracial interactions can help reduce stereotypes, they can sometimes be challenging. Interracial interactions can increase the fear of being devalued because of one’s membership in a social group (Green et. al, 2021). This fear may prevent these interactions from happening. Without these interactions, a perception of the individual is likened to their social group and the representations presented within media, which have been shown to not always be dependable or accurate. In addition to this, it is imperative to realize that only one interracial interaction is not an accurate and fulfilling education of varying cultural identities. Various interactions with openness and understanding must occur to learn about a social group and debunk stereotypes a person is likely to hold. Interracial interactions should be used as an opportunity to learn more about another culture (Green et. al, 2021). Interracial interactions are an educational tool important to stereotype reduction.
Social Media
Social media is defined as an internet-based application that allows user-generated content from the public (Betton et. al, 2015). Some popular social media platforms that have been used to uplift the voices of those frequently unheard include Instagram, TikTok, and X. While social media presents many challenges and legislators have begun to debate whether restrictions should be placed on social media, it presents many opportunities for positive social change such as an opportunity to reduce stereotypes. Social media provides an opportunity to tell individual stories that may be otherwise unheard (Neubaum et. al, 2020) and can lead to that message being heard by a larger amount of people. This ability to share individual stories and provide a form of education for others about an individual’s identity can be empowering for the individual and benefit the content creator as well as the viewers (Betton et. al, 2015). Social media plays a role in communication across geographic locations; thus, it can help to spread a message quicker and to more people. This form of media also places responsibility and impact on the individual level unlike films. Many of the stereotypes upheld by films have been maintained at an institutional level. However, social media allows the individual, and not an institution, to bring light to issues (Betton et. al, 2015) as well as produce another perception of an individual and their social group they identify with. While this may include stereotypical presentations, it provides a chance to increase the non-stereotypical presentations that people will internalize as well.
By sharing stories and educating others on social media, individuals have an ability to spread a message with people they may have never interacted with otherwise. Social media also provides an opportunity for individuals to take in content they may have never otherwise encountered (Betton et. al, 2015). Social media is one method of increasing intercultural communication. The parasocial contact hypothesis suggests that the same cognitive mechanisms used to form impressions of social groups based on intergroup relations are used when forming impressions about a media persona (Neubaum et. al, 2020). In the same way that media persona from films can form these impressions, social media users can form these impressions as well. Social media allows a chance for individuals to react with a person instead of a character. While characters are still present in social media, they are not used as often as in films. When individual stories have the chance to be made public, it creates more intercultural communication and communication with the outgroup. By having these increased experiences with the outgroup, stereotypes can be debunked. Social media is another form of social media that can be used to eradicate racial stereotypes and stereotypes of all kinds.
Conclusions
Interactions with various social groups such as different racial groups can activate various cognitive mechanisms that support the formation of stereotypes. Information processing can be used to fill in gaps based on interactions with various social groups, and inaccurate associations may be made following interactions. Individuals may learn these inaccurate associations by watching a model such as a parent or teacher, or an individual may learn to attribute negative experiences with other racial groups due to viewing them as an outgroup in which all the members are similar. The interactions that initiate these processes do not always need to be real-life interactions and can also occur through the viewing of films. A lack of representation and lack of non-stereotypical presentation in these films can initiate these cognitive processes to form stereotypes.
Throughout history, American films have been known to display racial stereotypes that contribute to the maintenance of stereotypes. Twentieth century films such as The Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and Song of the South (1946) blatantly used stereotypes as a socially acceptable phenomenon within entertainment. As society progressed, racial stereotypes were identified and became socially unacceptable. However, implicit bias has led filmmakers to not always realize when they are contributing to the succession of a stereotype, and thus twenty first century films such as Precious (2009), The Princess and the Frog (2009), and Get Out (2017) covertly include stereotypes.
The stereotypes presented in these films have various implications for the targets of the stereotypes and those internalizing the stereotypes. The films can contribute to phenomenon known as stereotype threat, collective threat, a negative self-perception of racial minorities, racial profiling, and additional implicit bias. The best ways to begin to eradicate racial stereotypes that may be imposed by films and the implications that are carried with the stereotypes include implicit bias training, education, interracial interactions, and the use of social media to uplift minority voices.
While there is room for improvement in the future, it may not be a linear process. Building awareness about these racial stereotypes through education and implicit bias training is a crucial step to reduce them, but barriers are created when laws are enacted to discourage education and work relating to diversity, equity, and inclusion. With less government regulation on social media, this may be the most effective platform for change. These platforms are informal, but they are not subjected to governmental and educational barriers. In addition to this, presentations within films are not limited to white filmmakers that have historically incorporated stereotypical presentations within film, prolonging the impact of these stereotypes in society. While nonwhite filmmakers may still include stereotypes, it is not as frequent as films with white filmmakers. Decreasing racial stereotypes in film and their impacts is a complex issue that may require a multitude of methods to solve on an individual and institutional level.
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