Subversive Collage of the Early 20th Century
Amber Lyons, Westfield State University
Abstract: The significance of collage spans time and tiers of the art world, evolving into a universally familiar and commonly used technique. This paper explores the profound socio-political applications of the art medium of collage, with a focus on early 20th century artworks. The communicative power of collage is present throughout its evolution as an art technology. Collage is accessible, effective, and defiant. From the art movements of Cubism to Pop Art, collage serves as a potent tool for artists to convey socio-political critique and experimentation on their respective eras' cultural nuances. It allows audiences to personally connect with each cut-and-paste image, scrap paper, and fragment of text in new, exciting, and tactile ways. Similar to how viewers admire the defined brushstrokes of a painting, intentional manipulation of two-dimensional media is used to create an intimate experience while encountering the works. Collage technology empowers both the artist and the viewer to look deeper into their perceived print media. Through its versatility, accessible techniques, and ability to connect to audiences, collage stands as a unique and enduring art technology that continues to captivate and challenge the modern art world to this day. Artists like Pablo Picasso, Hannah Höch, Max Ernst, Dora Maar, and Richard Hamilton show the use of collage as a device for expressing political ideas, subverting societal norms, and providing commentary on the cultural landscape of different periods.
Introduction
The significance of collage spans time, genre, and class across the art world, evolving into a universally familiar and commonly used medium. Often labeled as craft, hobby art, or lowbrow, despite its historical use by prominent artists, collage stands as a unique art technology that has transcended this hierarchical divide within the art world. Its influential power can be attributed, in part, to the accessibility of the medium. The primary material of collage, paper, is inherently tactile and utilitarian. Throughout the history of collage, artists have explored its personal and political potential. In recent history, both artists and activists have frequently used the medium to critique, advocate for, and spread information about their culture and causes. With the advancement of digital art tools, collage can be created electronically and utilized on digital platforms. The communicative technology of collage is present throughout its evolution, compelling individuals who share these identities to recognize the depth and liberation inherent in the medium. Collage, being accessible, effective, and defiant, embodies these qualities in its expressive form.
This paper chronicles the unique power of collage in the twentieth century to express political ideas and subvert social norms. Examining twentieth century collage is crucial to understanding the depth and history of this technology. Collage works to the artist’s aim in ways that are unachievable through other mediums. This can be attributed to the accessibility of its materials, combined with its hands-on techniques, which allows for visible and impactful alterations. While collage has been a traditional craft for centuries it has often been perceived as domestic, feminine, or as a “low” craft art. This perception shifted as leading artists began to explore the medium.
Cubism
Pablo Picasso was the first to utilize collage form in modern art. In the early 1900s, the Cubist movement emerged as a period of rapid exploration of form, composition, and foreign elements, led by artists Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. A primary characteristic of this movement was the ability to transform fragmented images into geometric forms that take on a new or enhanced meaning. The intermediate phase of Cubism, known as Synthetic Cubism, introduced non-art materials to the process of fine art making through papier collé and collage (The Museum of Modern Art). Both techniques involve the reconstruction and arrangement of readily available materials; papier collé exclusively uses paper elements while collage extends to a broader mixed media realm. Picasso used a variety of textured or colored papers in his collages, including “found objects” like newspaper and wallpaper. While the concept of collage predated Synthetic Cubism, the movement revolutionized collage technique and provided inspiration to a world of mixed media artists who followed. Through the appropriation of found objects, Synthetic Cubism used collage's subversive nature as a means to question the established values of fine art (The Art Story, “Synthetic Cubism”).
Following Cubist principle, Picasso experimented with depicting multiple perspectives of commonplace objects through the collaging of papers, charcoal, and different types of paint. Picasso’s collaged elements included clippings of newspaper, patterned cloth, and sheet music. These collaged papers are cut out of their original context, reorganized, and pasted into an entirely new narrative. Between 1912 and 1913, Picasso incorporated numerous newspaper dates, titles, and headlines into his collage work. The inclusion of newspaper is significant as it serves as a consistent and accessible means of communication, representing a shared body of knowledge (The Art Story, “Cubism”).
When examining Picasso's associations with anarcho-socialism, these works can be seen as intricate expressions of politics. In La bouteille de Suze (Bottle of Suze) (see Figure 1), Picasso used a newspaper clipping reporting on the Serbian advance during The First Balkan War. The report includes accounts of the wounded soldiers and descriptions of battle movements, contrasted against a different report within the collage that discusses a mass socialist, anarchist, and pacifist meeting during wartime (Leighten). Subsequent collages subtly incorporated updates on the war and commentary on Europe’s unstable political situation. Overall, the collage’s imagery captures the perspective of an ordinary Parisian. Picasso created a classic café scene with a bottle of alcohol beside an ashtray and cigarette on a blue table. The inclusion of newspapers in the space around the table could suggest the common man is reading about current events while at the café, juxtaposing modern life against the tragedies of war. Picasso and other artists’ use of newspaper clippings in their collage works would prove compelling to subsequent artists across Europe.
Dada
Dada was an art movement that originated in Europe during the spring of 1916. It was led by a group of artists who were influenced by the turmoil of World War I. These artists used juxtapositions of imagery, controversial exhibitions, and unusual performance art as an active form of protest against the current conditions of society. Their art was subversive in origin, questioning and satirizing the politics of the time. Key artists in the Dada movement included Hannah Höch, Raoul Hausmann, George Grosz, and John Heartfield. Dada artists appropriated contemporary sources through mixed media techniques such as collage, assemblage, and a newly named method called photomontage. Photomontage is a collage approach that relies solely on images typically sourced from photographs and reproductions from magazines or catalogs. The term was invented to distinguish political Berlin Dada art from other forms of collage like experimental Synthetic Cubist collage. By differentiating their work as something new, they could identify with the working class, viewing themselves as politically engaged engineers rather than traditional artists (Waldman). The working-class perspective addressed issues and concerns faced by working class individuals, including income inequality and access to education. Due to these challenges, Dada artists prioritized using accessible readymade images, favoring inexpensive and common materials over costly ones. When individuals in a society can create using the materials at hand, it increases the accessibility of art and, in this case, accessibility of political involvement for the public. This do-it-yourself (D.I.Y.) approach maintains a strong influence on both Leftist political subculture and art in the present day.
The technique of photomontage developed from two separate Dada artistic duos. In 1916, George Grosz and John Heartfield invented their version of photomontage while playfully experimenting with a variety of found images like advertisements, sheet music, labels, and photographs. Initially, their purpose for creating these photomontages was to satirize political subjects. Then, in 1918, Hannah Höch and Raoul Hausmann found inspiration for their approach to photomontage from the popular tradition of German families commemorating their loved one who served in WWI through collaged mementos. In lieu of having their own photographs of loved ones in uniform, it was common for families to paste a photo of their family member’s head onto a pre-existing image of a soldier’s torso (Waldman). In the same year, Berlin Dada, also known as Club Dada, was formed by a radical pro-Communist political group that included Höch and Hausmann. Berlin Dada created a significant amount of political content within its photomontages, including propaganda, posters, and periodicals.
Hannah Höch continued to explore the world of avant-garde while working commercially designing embroidery and lace. The working-class perspective shaped her ideologies, profoundly influencing her works, as it did with many Dada artists. Her photomontages focused on Berlin’s contemporary politics and visual culture from a female perspective. Through the medium, she also commented on sexuality, body politic, and gender identity (Makholm). In 1919, Höch created one of her most famous photomontages, Cut with the Kitchen Knife Dada through the Last Weimar Beer-Belly Cultural Epoch in Germany (see Figure 2). It is a layered collage in gray and sepia tones, packed with an abundance of details such as newspaper text, machinery, women, and the familiar faces of politicians, resonating with viewers of the time. With asymmetrical forms and prominent diagonals, Höch creates an engaging composition that guides the viewer to the many elements within each section of the piece. The upper left section portrays Dada artists' perspective on their work as a technical craft, featuring a manipulated clipping of Albert Einstein declaring, “Dada is not an art trend.” Anti-Dada imagery is shown in the upper right portion, along with cuttings of Weimar politicians. At the lower left, there are images of crowds and communist leader Karl Liebnecht encouraging the audience to “Join Dada.” The lower right corner invites the viewer into the world of Dada, including an open-mouthed photo of the face of Raoul Hausmann pasted on the body of a deep-sea diver. Despite the traditionally masculine domain of politics, the piece is scattered with images of female film stars, dancers, and even Hannah Höch herself. The incorporation of these women was very intentional; Höch aimed to illustrate the evolving image of modern femininity in post-WWI Germany (Barber). These references collectively contribute to a broader commentary on the political and cultural landscape of Weimar Germany.
Many Dada works were titled with deliberate significance, often adding a touch of humor or poetry, much like a verbal collage (Waldman). Cut with the Kitchen Knife Dada through the Last Weimar Beer-Belly Cultural Epoch in Germany serves as a metaphor, symbolizing Höch's meticulous cutting and pasting in the visible layering and alterations of images within this piece. The medium of collage allows for the literal and symbolic deconstruction of universally accessible print media. The usage of materials from magazines, ready-mades, and photos from mass-produced periodicals, could serve as a form of commentary on consumer culture as well (Makholm). The application of these components allows for the construction of a whole new context, contrasting recognizable imagery against a disorderly visual landscape. Due to the medium's success, Höch went on to produce several other influential political photomontages filled with photographs of politicians and newspaper headlines, including works like Dada-Review (see Figure 3). Through the use of criticism and satire, Berlin Dadaists established the foundation of political and social dialogue in art, which continues to be impactful to this day.
Surrealism
Much like Dada, Surrealism found inspiration in the elaborate subversion of societal standards. Both movements employed the medium of collage to repurpose found images into new compositions. While Dada was an absurd and chaotic response to the aftermath of World War I, Surrealism focused on social liberation of the subconscious mind. In 1924, the French writer André Breton introduced the world to the concept of Surrealism with the publication of his groundbreaking work, Manifeste du Surréalisme (Manifesto of Surrealism) (Spector). Influenced by the developing field of psychology, Surrealists believed that by unifying dreams and reality, the subconscious mind served as the essential source of life and art.
Surrealist artists collaged photographs or illustrations into fantastical outrageous, dream-like compositions. These works transform the original identity of the source material in impactful ways, leaving a meaningful and intriguing impression on the viewer. Collage is particularly effective in portraying the Surrealist style because of the visible modifications that emphasize a feeling of incongruence within the works. German painter and sculptor Max Ernst was among the first Surrealist artists to explore the possibilities of collage. He utilized photographs of figures, landscapes, and objects to create outlandish scenes, often blending elements with subtle touches of pencil, ink, or gouache (Waldman).
In 1929, Ernst produced the first-ever collage-novel, a book filled with collages featuring many images sourced from nineteenth century illustrations and wood engravings, titled La Femme 100 têtes (The Hundred Headless Woman) (see Figure 4 and Figure 5). As shown in figure 4, in the center of this collage is a massive toucan interacting with a toned figure, reminiscent of a male renaissance sculpture. The man appears to be grabbing the giant bird, possibly fighting against it. Behind them is another figure, this time a woman who resembles a marble statue, positioned in front of two other large birds. The entire scene is bizarre, with birds much larger than the humans, engaged in a fight in the jungle canopy. Another illustration, figure 5, displays a man wearing a fancy suit resting his eyes while laying on a patterned armchair, however, the patterned armchair is floating in the rough waves of a body of water. To the slight left of the armchair, there is an arm emerging from under the waves. Behind the armchair, in the distant background, is a lighthouse with something surrounding it. It’s not explicitly clear what is affecting the lighthouse. With the context of this piece being set in water, it suggests that a massive wave is rising straight up towards the sky, flooding the entirety of the lighthouse, then crashing on top of and beside it. The piece is captioned “Quiétude”, which could be referencing the calmness present in the man who is restfully sleeping on the couch. Ironically, the waters immediately surrounding him are extremely chaotic.
The two collages by Ernst exhibit notable differences, yet the juxtaposed imagery and varied illustrative styles effectively draw the viewer's attention to the distinct modifications within each collage. Viewers encounter familiar imagery in unfamiliar situations and recognize the unusual changes, compelling them to delve deeper into the scene. By deconstructing the accepted reality, Ernst crafted many unsettling narratives that are said to have served as commentary on the social and sexual dynamics of his time (Lippard). This commentary is received by the viewer as they are trying to navigate the web of abnormalities present in the collage.
Dora Maar, a prominent female artist in the male-dominated Surrealist movement, made significant contributions through her innovative work in painting, photography, and photomontage. She emerged beside a new generation of female artists in the 1930s, who were securing opportunities and commissions that were historically given to men (Aesthetica Magazine). As a form of political expression, Maar’s work aimed to observe and document the harsh social conditions of the world around her. She took photos of marginalized individuals, including the blind and homeless, in cities like London and Paris, as well as various regions of Spain. Using portraits, alongside street and landscape photography, Maar created black-and-white photomontages from her own images. These photos were cut and pasted together to create new scenes, blending elements of fantasy and photojournalism through the use of dramatic angles and extreme close-ups. She delved into themes of eroticism, the unconscious mind, and the intricate connections between art and reality through surrealist compositions (Tate, “Seven Things to Know: Dora Maar”).
One of her photomontages, titled Cavalier (see Figure 6), features two monochromatic knights placed across a vacant chessboard against a gradient background. The knight positioned in the foreground is an ivory knight chess piece, within its proper game setting. The knight in the perspectival background is a Renaissance style sculpture of a man in armor on horseback, possibly the Equestrian Statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni by Andrea del Verrocchio. The addition of this monument introduces a unique twist to the scene. Neither of these knights are real horses nor riders; they are photo representations of power and knighthood. Regardless, the viewer imagines the two knights sparring against each other or advancing toward a common enemy within this plane. The juxtaposition of the two recognizable knights conjures a sense of wonder regarding the use of a public monument within the playful notion of a chess game (Choh).
The medium of collage is a uniquely successful vehicle for decontextualizing and recontextualizing commonplace imagery and objects. In the fine details of Cavalier, the viewer can identify the “seams” of the images, where the artist physically altered the collaged elements and pasted them onto the background image. For instance, there are sections of white around the equestrian statue, particularly visible through the horse’s legs. These details are evidence of where the collaged elements originated from; in this case, the elements are from images from Maar’s portfolio of photography. This effect, inherent to collage, draws the attention of viewers and emphasizes the dreamlike combination of visual details in unusual compositions. While Dora Maar explored photomontage through a surrealist lens, many other artists employed the medium to convey a more literal approach to social commentary.
Pop Art
Characterized by exploration of popular culture and critique of consumerism, Just what is it that makes today's homes so different, so appealing? by Richard Hamilton is considered one of the first works of British Pop Art. It is also an excellent example of accessible magazine materials being used to create collage works full of political and social commentary. Just what is it… (see Figure 7) was created as a poster for the exhibition, This Is Tomorrow, at the Whitechapel Art Gallery in London’s East End. The collage consists of found images sourced from various genres of American magazines. With this piece, Hamilton aimed to comment on the unsustainable nature of the growing post-war consumerism of the 1950s (Smith). It is an ironic take on advertising culture while using advertisement materials from magazines. The title of the work itself was adopted from an advertisement line.
A domestic interior space, filled with imagery of household appliances and references to media, surrounds the main figures. The theme of entertainment and consumption is present throughout the piece. There is a black and white television displaying a woman, a comic book cover used as a poster, and a small image of a Ford brand heraldic crest used as a lampshade. The view through the living room window shows the Broadway marquee on opening night, representing the popularity of cinema. The tape recorder, tin can of ham, and woman vacuuming on the long staircase are all snapshots of the modern consumer economy. The main figures are black and white clippings depicting an unnamed nude model lounging on the couch and bodybuilder Irvin Koszewski holding a large lollipop, imposed into his grip through collage technique. Hamilton has stated that the addition of Koszewski was a biblical reference to “Adam,” with the woman on the couch representing “Eve.” They are superficial idealized versions of the human form in their modern Garden of Eden, filled with the wonders of their time (Stonard).
The concept of this piece is a compilation of different objects and figures all within the theme of pop culture and consumerism. Due to the analog nature of collage, it allows for the visual compiling of these elements. The viewer can identify that the black and white clippings are from different source documents than the sepia-colored clippings. In person, it becomes even easier to identify these differences through variations of texture and finish on the assortment of images. Additionally, the advertisement images used to comment on consumerism are readily available in common materials like magazines and newspapers. Since these images and materials are so accessible, the viewers are familiar with the products, evoking personal reactions and connection to the scene. Ultimately, through additive collage techniques, Richard Hamilton's Just what is it that makes today's homes so different, so appealing? serves as both a pioneering work of British Pop Art and commentary on the enduring impact of Western pop culture’s influence on consumerism. By utilizing ubiquitous materials, the audience can establish a personal connection to the piece, while identifying and reflecting on their own habits of consumption.
Conclusion
From Cubism to Pop Art, the power of collage serves as a potent technology for artists to convey socio-political critique and experimentation on their respective eras' cultural nuances and societal shifts. It allows audiences to personally connect with each cut-and-paste image, scrap paper, and fragment of text in new, exciting, and tactile ways. Similar to how viewers admire the defined brushstrokes of a painting, intentional manipulation of two-dimensional media is used to create an intimate experience while encountering the works. Collage empowers both the artist and the viewer to look deeper into their perceived print media. This paper showcased the significant contributions of artists like Pablo Picasso, Hannah Höch, Max Ernst, Dora Maar, and Richard Hamilton, showcasing how collage has been an impactful device for expressing political ideas, subverting societal norms, and providing commentary on the cultural landscape of different periods. Through its versatility, accessible nature, and capability to connect to audiences, collage stands as a unique and enduring technology that continues to captivate and challenge the modern art world to this day.
Figures
Figure 1. Pablo Picasso (Spain), La bouteille de Suze (Bottle of Suze), 1912, Pasted papers, gouache, and charcoal, 65.405 × 50.165 cm, Washington University Gallery of Art, Missouri, United States. Click here to view this collage.
Figure 2. Hannah Höch (Germany), Cut with the Kitchen Knife Dada through the Last Weimar Beer-Belly Cultural Epoch in Germany, 1919, Photomontage, 114 × 90 cm, Nationalgalerie, Berlin, Germany. Click here to view this photomontage.
Figure 3. Hannah Höch (Germany), Dada-Review, 1919, Collage, gouache, and watercolor, 43.7 × 34.6 cm, Berlinische Galerie, Berlin, Germany. Click here to view this collage.
Figure 4. Max Ernst (Germany), La Femme 100 têtes (The Hundred Headless Woman), 1929, Illustrated book with 147 reproductions after collages, 25.1 × 19.2 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York, United States. Click here to view this collage.
Figure 5. Max Ernst (Germany), La Femme 100 têtes (The Hundred Headless Woman), 1929, Illustrated book with 147 reproductions after collages, 25.1 × 19.2 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York, United States. Click here to view this collage.
Figure 6. Dora Maar (France), Cavalier, 1936, Photomontage, 27.7 × 23.6 cm, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France. Click here to view this photomontage.
Figure 7. Richard Hamilton (England), Just what is it that makes today's homes so different, so appealing?, 1956, Collage, 26 × 24.8 cm, Kunsthalle Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany. Click here to view this collage.
Works Cited
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Smith, Graham. “RICHARD HAMILTON’S ‘JUST WHAT IS IT THAT MAKES TODAY’S HOMES SO DIFFERENT, SO APPEALING?’” Source: Notes in the History of Art, vol. 9, no. 4, 1990, pp. 30–34. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23202669.
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Stonard, John-Paul. “Pop in the Age of Boom: Richard Hamilton’s ‘Just What Is It That Makes Today’s Homes so Different, so Appealing?’” The Burlington Magazine, vol. 149, no. 1254, 2007, pp. 607–20. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20074973.
The Museum of Modern Art. “1913: Guitar, Glass, and Bottle by Pablo Picasso.” YouTube, 6 May 2013, https://youtu.be/-jXFckR2yoY?si=29ICP3D4yRL90Tqn.
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“Cavalier.” Centre Pompidou, http://www.centrepompidou.fr/en/ressources/oeuvre/cMebRbA. Accessed 11 Feb. 2024.
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“Just What Was It That Made Yesterday’s Homes so Different, so Appealing?” Tate, http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/hamilton-just-what-was-it-that-made-yesterdays-homes-so-different-so-appealing-upgrade-p20271. Accessed 11 Feb. 2024.
“La Bouteille de Suze (Bottle of Suze).” Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum, http://www.kemperartmuseum.wustl.edu/collection/search-results/wu-3773-pablo-picasso-spanish-18811973-la-bouteille-de-suze-bottle-of-suze-1912. Accessed 11 Feb. 2024.
“Radical Photomontage.” Aesthetica Magazine, 7 Nov. 2019, https://aestheticamagazine.com/radical-photomontage/.
“Seven Things to Know: Dora Maar.” Tate, https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/dora-maar-15766/seven-things-know-dora-maar. Accessed 30 Dec. 2023.
“Synthetic Cubism.” The Art Story, https://www.theartstory.org/definition/synthetic-cubism/. Accessed 22 Oct. 2023.
“The Hundred Headless Woman (La Femme 100 Têtes).” The Museum of Modern Art, http://www.moma.org/collection/works/229544. Accessed 11 Feb. 2024.
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