The Evolution of Female Characters in Irish Folklore:
Pre- and Post-Christian Perspectives
Aoife Clune, SUNY Buffalo State University
Abstract: Irish mythology is split into four cycles. Firstly, the Mythological cycle, which often involves godlike people. Stories from this cycle were written when Ireland was a primarily pagan society. Next came the Ulster and the Fenian cycle, taking place between the first and fifth century, and finally, the Historical cycle, largely influenced by the rise of Christianity in Ireland. These cycles, specifically the Mythological and Historical cycle, will be closely examined to conclude why the portrayal of women in Irish Folklore was so different before and after the rise of Christianity.
Prior to the teachings of Christianity influencing literature, Irish folklore portrayed women using characters such as banshees and fairies, who were powerful, and hyper-feminine. After Christianity became popularized in Ireland in the fifth century, there was a shift in the way that women were portrayed.
Before the rise of Christianity, stories from the Mythological cycle often revolved around very powerful women. Stories from the Historical cycle succeeded the turn to Christianity, and displayed women as more domestic. This change in portrayal of women is due to the influence Christian teachings had on literature, but also the way that Christian teachings portrayed women.
This research will inform readers on how the entrance of religion into a previously pagan society can impact literature, as well as how Christianity failed women during this turn of the century. Ireland was incredibly ahead of its time with the stories written during the Mythological cycle, and shifted greatly when Christianity began to influence the literature.
When Ireland transitioned from a pagan to a Christian society, literature was significantly impacted. Prior to the fifth century, Irish literature was incredibly ahead of its time, specifically in its treatment of gender issues; however, with the introduction to Christianity, the narratives offered underwent substantial changes, particularly in their portrayal of women. This paper will explore the shift in the depiction of women in Irish Literature before and after the advent of Christianity in Ireland. More specifically, it will focus on how, prior to Christianity’s influence, Irish literature demonstrated respect for strong, powerful women being portrayed as main characters, and then, after the entrance of Christianity, women were relegated to maternal and domestic secondary characters or were absent from the literature all together.
Irish mythology is divided into four cycles, each one representing a distinct section of folklore. These cycles were vital to my research because without the close examination of these, I would not have been able to contextualize the stories within their historical backdrop.First is the Mythological Cycle, the oldest, and therefore the least preserved. This cycle chronicles tales of gods and supernatural occurrences. These stories took place during the first century and were transcribed by Irish monks thousands of years later, during the tenth through the fourteenth centuries. These stories recounted the history of Ireland and the triumphs of the early Celtic settlers. These settlers were frequently depicted as godlike people, such as Tuatha De Danann, the Fir Bolg and the Milesians (UsmanI). Notable tales from this cycle include The Children of Lir, The Banshee, and The Dream of Aengus. These stories were spread through word of mouth very early on, when Ireland was a primarily pagan society, and later were recorded.
Following the Mythological Cycle was the Ulster Cycle, believed to have transpired around the first century. The transition from the Mythological Cycle to the Ulster Cycle of mythology is marked by a shift in themes, moving from magical elements to narratives centered on warfare. There is speculation that this transition was linked to the Battle of Magh Slécht, involving the High King Tuathal Techtmar in AD 80. According to Max Usman, the primary subjects in stories from this cycle were warriors, war, and the sorrows of war. The tales from this cycle are relatively better preserved compared to those present in the mythological cycle, though they are still not entirely intact. Some of the most renowned stories of this era include Cú Chulainn and Donn Cúailnge.
Next came the Fenian Cycle. It is believed that these stories took place during and around the third century. These narratives expanded beyond Ireland, encompassing Munster, Leinster, and Scotland. This cycle revolved around nomadic communities, warriors, and heroes. The heroes depicted in these stories evolved from their warlike personas in the Ulster Cycle to embody more romantic attributes. During this cycle, animals played a crucial role in many tales, as well. One of the most renowned stories from this cycle was Fish of Knowledge, in which Finn MacCumhail eats a mystical fish, learning all of the knowledge in the world. Additionally, this cycle is sometimes referred to as the Ossianic Cycle, named after the character Oisín, who is Finn MacCumhail’s son (Max Usman).
Finally, there is the Historical Cycle, also known as the King Cycle. This cycle intertwined tales of historical figures, mythological adventures, and accounts detailing the attributes of an exemplary king. Spanning from 200 to 475 AD, these narratives coincided with Ireland's transition from paganism to Christianity. Unlike the other three cycles, magic was not a prevalent theme in this period, which aligned with the societal shift towards Christianity. These narratives focused on kings and the lineage of noble families, were documented by bards or poets, and were seamlessly woven into mythology. Some of the figures in these stories were specifically crafted for mythology, like the king Labraid Loingsech, and some were based on actual historical figures, like Brian Boru (Max Usman). Many of these stories are largely influenced by Christianity's arrival into Irish society.
Studying these four cycles enables scholars to assign specific stories to particular time periods. For example, while the version of The Banshee I referenced for this paper was published in 1834, the character's roots date back to the first century AD. Scholars know this now, because stories from this period were originally spread through oral tradition and were later recorded and approximately dated in print editions. Focusing particularly on the Mythological and Historical Cycles and their stories and characters allowed me to deduce the significant shifts in the portrayal of women in Irish folklore before and after the advent of Christianity.
Before Christianity’s influence on literature, within the Mythological Cycle, Irish folklore portrayed women as formidable and mystical figures, as seen in tales such as The Banshee and The Children of Lir. This paper will specifically delve into The Banshee as an example of how women were depicted in literature of this era. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, the Banshee, translating to “woman of the fairies,” is a “…supernatural being in Irish and other Celtic folklore whose mournful ‘keening,’ or wailing, screaming, or lamentation, at night was believed to foretell the death of a member of the family of the person who heard the spirit.” In Ireland, the Banshee is believed to only warn people in families of pure Irish descent (“Banshee”). This character features prominently in numerous books and stories involving the Banshee are likely to have first been told early in the first century, but the Banshee’s exact inception in literature remains unknown.
For this paper I have chosen to use the story The Banshee by J.L.L., which was published in the third volume of The Dublin Penny Journal, on August 2, 1834. This story begins with an introduction to what the banshee is:
… an unearthly attendant on certain ancient families in this country, and it is only seen or heard prior to the death of some of its members. It is usually represented as a small though beautiful female, dressed in the fashion of the early ages and who, with a particularly mournful and melancholy cry, bewails the misfortune about to fall upon the family she loves (J.L.L. 32)
The story takes place in Ballintober, County Roscommon, where James Moran, known as Shemus, a farmer, resides with his wife, Madgy. One night, as Shemus is delayed returning home from work, Madgy grows increasingly anxious. Eventually, Shemus comes in the door, looking agitated and frightened. He reveals that he had a chilling encounter with the Banshee near their garden, and that it was predicting their neighbor, Miss Norah’s, impending death. Madgy questions Shemus's certainty, but they are both very concerned, and rush to their neighbor's home, only to find that Miss Norah is in good health. However, one of the servants informs them that another neighbor, the poor widow Conry, has recently died (J.L.L. 38-40).
This narrative, similar to many from the Mythological Cycle, centers on an enigmatic and potent woman, the Banshee. Despite lacking any dialogue, she stands as the central force propelling the entire plot, serving as the focal point not only in this tale, but in virtually every account where she appears. The Banshee commands unparalleled power and mystique, driving stories that singularly revolve around her essence.
Remarkably progressive for its era, this story predates later Irish narratives, clearly originating when Ireland was still a pagan society. This is evident because of the themes of magic and death that would certainly not be present in a story post-dating the arrival of Christianity in Ireland. This story lines up with Ireland’s Pagan traditions because of the narrative context present in the story. The characters immediately jump to the conclusion that Shemus heard the Banshee, and that she was to blame for the suddenly sick, and possibly dead neighbor.
In the article “‘When Ireland Was Still Under a Spell’: The Poetry of Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill,” Potts explores how ancient Celtic traditions, mirrored in the mythological cycle of Irish mythology, embody the intimate relationship between woman and the land, while also highlighting a reclamation of power by women. The poet Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill is one of the most prominent poets writing in the Irish language today. She studied Irish and English at the University College in Cork and became well versed in poetry following themes of gender politics and feminism. She has written multiple pieces about her anger over the under-representation of women in Irish literature and, therefore, is a well-educated voice to engage. In this article discussing Dhomhnaill, the author focuses on “…reviving the Celtic worldview as reflected in Irish poetry that predates English colonization” (Potts 68). The Banshee primarily tells the story of a woman intricately linked to her community and the natural world. She foretells the impending demise of cherished members of Irish families and is often envisioned as a woman perched upon a hill. The Irish poetry that Dhomhnaill is discussing originates from an era when Ireland still adhered to Pagan beliefs and it was possible for narratives to revolve around potent and magical women. While Dhomhnaill mentions the turning point of Ireland's literature taking place during English colonization, my research reveals that formal English colonization began in 1169, and Christianity's arrival in Ireland coincides with St. Patrick's arrival in 400 AD, marking a pivotal juncture. So, the shift in themes in literature really took place about 770 years before Dhomhnaill argues. It is around this time that literature gradually adopted a more pronounced anti-feminist perspective.
With Christianity’s entrance into Ireland taking place around 400 AD, the advent of the Historical Cycle of mythology saw a pronounced shift towards a more masculine-centered narrative. Characters such as kings, knights, and warriors gained prominence and popularity. Women in these stories were written as secondary characters, often portrayed as mothers, daughters, or princesses destined for arranged marriages. Frequently, women were not mentioned in the stories at all. The mythological story I chose to examine from the Historical Cycle is The Death and Burial of Cormac. Cormac Mac Art was one of the earliest to learn of the Christian Faith before St. Patrick's arrival. He faced a dramatic turn after renouncing his kingship, being cursed by Druids for publicly rejecting their god, Moylann. Cormac endured a life marked by their curses, ensuring an unintentionally swift and painless death. As his end neared, Cormac conveyed his desire to be buried separately from the pagan kings at Brugh of the Boyne. The princes and lords of the village chose to defy his wish and attempted to bury him with the past kings, despite their struggles against the elements. Nature seemed to resist their efforts, and they battled against wind, rain, and finally a torrential flood, which carried Cormac's body away. The next day, a group of shepherds stumbled upon Cormac's body on the hillside of Ross-na-ree. Unfamiliar with him, they buried him on Ross-na-ree where he lay undisturbed, fulfilling his final wish for eternity (Rolleston).
This tale was likely recorded sometime in the fourth century and displays a great deal of evident Christian themes. Notably, it lacks any female characters—a recurring trait in many stories of this era. In the article “Rhetoric of Myth, Magic and Conversion,” Johnson-Sheehan discusses Saint Patrick’s impact on the rhetoric of conversion. It's observed that with Saint Patrick's integration into adaptations of the Fenian Cycle, female characters lost prominence, giving way to a more dominant portrayal of religious themes. According to Johnson-Sheehan, Saint Patrick utilized various techniques to ease the transition from Paganism to Christianity. Recognizing the Irish familiarity with female characters, he capitalized on narratives featuring Mary from the Bible: “They also would have been drawn to Mary, whom they might have identified with Brigit, the Irish origin goddess” (Johnson-Sheehan 248). Mary’s likeness to Brigit, the Irish origin goddess, made stories about Mary immensely appealing. This connection was amplified by the portrayal of the first female Irish saint, Saint Brigit, hailed as the “Mary of Gael,” further strengthening the ties between Celtic heritage and Christianity (Johnson-Sheehan 248). Saint Patrick is also credited with introducing the Celtic Cross - a cross etched on a megalith, overlaid with a Druidic circle. Johnson-Sheehan explains that initially, this led many Irish individuals at the time to believe that Saint Patrick was embracing certain Pagan beliefs. However, as he garnered trust among the community, he gradually emphasized more Christian practices while diminishing the prevalence of feminine traditions relayed in many pieces of mythology starting in the late Fenian Cycle and continuing on far into the Historical Cycle.
It is important to note that many stories in many eras throughout the history of literature will not focus on women, while many stories will. The difference in Irish literature that should be emphasized is that the earliest stories, passed down through oral tradition, and then through print, did frequently follow strong women as the main characters. As time passed and the religion of the entire country of Ireland changed, the content in Irish literature changed significantly. Stories went from following magical women who could inspire young women to grow up to be a powerful force to be reckoned with, to women in regal or domesticated situations, or they became absent from the story all together. These stories are folktales and myths and will be some of the first stories young girls will remember being told, and it is important that they are being told about wonderful, magical women as often, if not more so that they are being told about princesses, queens, mothers, and maids.
Before Christianity influenced Irish literature, Irish folklore within the Mythological Cycle depicted women as formidable and mystical figures, as seen in stories like The Banshee. In contrast, tales from the Historical Cycle, which emerged after Christianity's adoption in Ireland, such as The Death and Burial of Cormac, either exclude women entirely or confine them to domestic roles at best. This transformation in the portrayal of women is attributed to Christian teachings, significantly shaping both the narrative and the depiction of women within these stories. This research, exploring the four cycles of Irish mythology, and analyzing notable Irish literary pieces, concludes that the shift from empowering and magical depictions of women in mythology to their absence or confinement to domestic roles is a consequence of Christianity's entryvia Saint Patrick and not English colonization, into a previously Pagan society in Ireland.
Work Cited
“Banshee.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc.,www.britannica.com/topic/banshee. Accessed 11 Dec. 2023.
Johnson-Sheehan, Richard, and Paul Lynch. “Rhetoric of Myth, Magic, and Conversion: A Prolegomena to Ancient Irish Rhetoric.” Rhetoric Review, vol. 26, no. 3, 2007, pp. 233-252. Jstor, www.jstor.org/institutionSearch. Accessed 19 Dec. 2023.
J. L. L. “The Banshee.” The Dublin Penny Journal, vol. 3, no. 109, 1834, pp. 38–40. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/30003864. Accessed 12 Dec 2023.
“Once upon a Time, Irish Mythology Crash Course.” Once Upon a Time, Irish Mythology Crash Course • Overseas and Off-Campus Programs • Lewis & Clark, college.lclark.edu/live/blogs/68-once-upon-a-time-irish-mythology -crash-course. Accessed 11 Dec. 2023.
Potts, Donna L. “‘When Ireland Was Still under a Spell’: The Poetry of Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill.” New Hibernia Review, vol. 7, no. 3, Autumn 2003, pp. 52-70. Jstor, www.jstor.org/institutionSearch. Accessed 11 Dec. 2023.
Rolleston, T. W. (Thomas William). “The High Deeds of Finn and Other Bardic Romances of Ancient Ireland.” The Project Gutenberg eBook of The High Deeds of Finn and Other Bardic Romances of Ancient Ireland, by T. W. Rolleston, et Al, 7 Dec. 2023,www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/14749/pg14749-images.html#X_THE_DEATH_AND_BURIAL_OF_CORMAC.
Comentarios